u*  AGRIC.  DEP7. 


U.S.  DEPARTMENT  OF  AGRICULTURE. 


SUGGESTIONS 


REGARDING 


THE  COOKING  OF  FOOD, 


BY 


EDWARD    ATKINSON, 


WITH 


INTRODUCTORY  STATEMENTS  REGARDING  THE  NUTRITIVE 

VALUE    OF    COMMON    FOOD    MATERIALS,    BY 

MRS.    ELLEN    H.    RICHARDS. 


PUBLISHED  BY  AUTHORITY  OF  THE  SECRETARY  OF  AGRICULTURE. 


WASHINGTON: 

GOVERNMENT    PRINTING    OFFICE. 
1894. 


LIBRARY 

fesei 

Berkeley. 

U.  S.  DEPARTMENT  OF  AGRICULTURE, 


SUGGESTIONS 


REGARDING 


THE  COOKING  OF  FOOD, 


BY 


EDWARD    ATKINSON, 


WITH 


INTRODUCTORY  STATEMENTS  REGARDING  THE  NUTRITIVE 

VALUE    OF    COMMON    FOOD    MATERIALS,    BY 

MRS.    ELLEN    H.    RICHARDS. 


PUBLISHED  BY  AUTHORITY  OF  THE  SECRETARY  OF  AGRICULTURE. 


WASHINGTON: 

GOVERNMENT  PRINTING  OFFICE. 
1894. 


PREFATORY  NOTE. 


I  have  from  time  to  time  presented  arguments  in  favor  of  the  estab- 
lishment of  food  laboratories,  or  I  would  rather  say  of  food  experiment 
stations,  in  connection  with  the  agricultural  experiment  stations  that 
are  now  existing  or  that  may  be  hereafter  established.  The  argument 
on  which  I  have  based  this  recommendation  is  that  science  and  inven- 
tion have,  up  to  this  time,  been  almost  exclusively  devoted  to  the  pro- 
duction and  distribution  of  food  material,  while  the  science  of  consump- 
tion, which  includes  the  conversion  of  the  food  material  into  food,  has 
been  almost  wholly  neglected. 

Within  the  last  few  years  public  interest  has  been  aroused  on  this 
matter  and  the  most  urgent  efforts  are  now  being  made  to  improve  the 
nutrition  of  the  people  of  this  country.  We  now  enjoy  the  greatest 
abundance  of  the  best  food  materials  at  the  least  cost,-  but  in  common 
practice  this  food  material  is  subjected  to  the  very  worst  methods  of 
cooking  that  can  be  conceived.  Hence  arises  a  monstrous  waste  of 
energy  which  might  be  readily  saved,  and  I  can  conceive  of  no  better 
place  to  make  a  beginning  than  at  the  agricultural  experiment  sta- 
tions. I  think  there  should  be  one  or  two  food  laboratories  in  which 
the  highest  scientific  work  may  be  conducted  corresponding  to  that  in 
Germany,  where  the  greatest  progress  has  been  made;  while,  on  the 
other  hand,  at  the  agricultural  experiment  stations  arrangements  may 
be  made  at  very  little  cost  for  testing,  in  common  practice,  the  applica- 
tion of  the  scientific  data  developed  in  the  laboratory. 

Mrs.  Ellen  H.  Richards  has  kindly  contributed  some  valuable  intro- 
ductory statements  regarding  the  nutritive  value  of  common  food 
materials. 

I  hope  that  these  efforts  may  be  of  service  and  that  in  this  way  the 
crude  beginnings  that  I  have  made  in  the  application  of  scientific 
principles  to  t-k-e  construction  <tud  use  of  cooking  apparatus  may  be 
developed  so  as  to*  become  an  art  readily  applied  by  intelligent  persons 
everywhere., 

EDWARD  ATKINSON. 

BOSTON,  MASS.,  June  15,  1894. 
2 


SUGGESTIONS  REGARDING  THE  COOKING  OF  FOOD. 


NUTRITIVE  VALUE  OF  COMMON  FOOD  MATERIALS. 

By  MRS.  ELLEN  H.  EICHARDS. 

The  best  coal  for  a  locomotive  is  that  which  will  enable  it  to  haul  the 
greatest  number  of  tons  over  the  longest  distance.  The  best  food  for 
man  is  that  which  will  enable  him  to  do  the  most  work  in  a  given  time  and 
keep  him  in  perfect  condition  for  further  work.  Food  is  the  only  means 
by  which  the  physical  and  mental  power  of  man  can  be  sustained.  It 
behooves  us  to  make  the  most  of  the  supplies  of  food  which  are  at  our 
command. 

The  best  coal  is  that  which  will  burn  freely  but  not  too  quickly; 
that  which  contains  only  a  moderate  amount  of  ash  or  stone  to  clog 
the  fire  grate  and  so  to  prevent  a  sufficient  draft.  An  excess  of  ash 
also  means  a  heavy  weight  of  useless  material.  The  best  food  is  that 
which  is  freely  digested  but  not  too  rapidly  assimilated  5  that  which 
contains  only  a  modicum  of  woody  fiber  and  other  indigestible  and 
burdensome  material. 

How  shall  we  know  what  is  the  best  food ?  Experience  has  taught  all 
the  different  races  of  men  what  are  the  elective  combinations,  as  instinct 
has  taught  other  animals.  The  foods  of  different  races,  or  of  the  people 
of  different  lands  of  the  same  race,  will  be  found  to  be  in  the  main  the 
best  foods  attainable  at  the  lowest  cost;  but  as  man  becomes  civilized 
and  gains  in  wealth  he  loses  his  instinct  and  he  loses  his  health  at  the 
same  time.  Therefore,  when  not  forced  by  circumstances  and  condi- 
tions to  make  the  right  choice  without  an  intelligent  comprehension  of 
the  subject,  he  must  learn  to  apply  his  reason  to  the  choice  of  his 
foodc 


363392 


^L  ViLTJE.  OF  C^KMON  FOOD  MATERIALS. 

Continuing  our  simile  of  power  we  may  compute  the  value  of  food 
in  heat  units  or  calories,  a  calorie  being  that  amount  of  heat  which  is 
required  to  raise  one  pound  of  water  4°  F.  The  following  table  shows 
the  relative  fuel  value  of  30  common  substances;  but  this  computation 
is  but  one  of  the  elements  which  must  be  considered  in  making  choice 
of  the  best  food  to  eat. 

TABLE  I.*— Calories  of  potential  energy  in  1  pound  of  each  material. 


Calories. 
Melons  ...........................        90 

Cabbage  .........................       170 

Oysters  ..........................       230 

Apples  ...........................       275 

Milk  .............................       310 

Mackerel  .........................       365 

Potatoes..  ...............       395  I  Wheat  flour  ......................   1,660 

Halibut  ..........................       465  |  Smoked  ham  .....................  1,715 

Turkey  ...........................       525i  Sugar....  ........................   1,900 

Salmon  ..........................  '      635  i  Oatmeal  .........................  1,845 

655     Whole-milk  cheese  ...............  2,045 


Calories. 

Skimmed-milk  cheese 1, 165 

Wheat  bread 1,  280 

Mutton  chops 1,  470 

Beans 1,  585 

Lentils l,  595 

Rice 1,630 


Beef  : 


Pork,  very  fat  ....................  3,  260 


Round  .......................  725  Oleomargarine  ...................  3,585 

Sirloin  .......................  885  Butter  ...........................  3,615 

Muttoii,leg  .......................  935  Lard  .............................  4?  180 

Canned  salmon  ...................  1,  005 

The  reader  must  not,  however,  jump  to  the  conclusion  that  lard  and 
sugar  are  the  best  foods  when  taken  alone.  The  locomotive  burns  coal 
only  in  order  to  produce  power  to  haul  the  train.  When  it  becomes 
worn  or  broken  it  is  taken  to  the  repair  shop  to  be  made  as  good  as 
new.  When  its  day  is  past  it  leaves  on  the  world  no  impress  of  great 
thoughts,  no  inspiration  to  great  deeds,  transmits  to  no  child  the  hopes 
and  unfulfilled  desires  of  higher  things  than  have  been  possible  to  it. 
The  higher  forms  of  energy  involved  in  the  physical  and  mental  life  of 
man  are  unknown  to  the  locomotive.  Hence,  in  selecting  the  best 
foods,  we  must  take  cognizance  of  more  than  mere  calories  or  heat 
units. 

PROTEIN  CONTENT  OF  COMMON  FOOD  MATERIALS. 

<  The  principal  kinds  of  nutritive  ingredients  in  foods  are  commonly 
classified  as  protein,  fats,  carbohydrates,  and  mineral  matters.  The 
term  "protein"  is  used  to  include  various  nitrogenous  substances  which 
form  the  mtfscles,  tendons,  and  other  tissues,  and  which  may  also  serve 
as  fuel  to  supply  warmth  and  energy  to  the  body.  The  following  table 
(II)  gives  the  percentages  of  protein  found  in  the  foods  named  in 
Table  I. 

*  The  data  from  which  Tables  I,  II,  and  III  are  made  are  from  Prof.  At  water's  pub- 
lished papers. 


TABLE  II. — Protein  content  of  common  food  materials. 


Per  cent. 

Lard 0.0 

Sugar 3 

Apples • 4 

Oleomargarine .6 

Butter 1.0 

Melons 1.1 

Potatoes 1.8 

Cabbage 3.9 

Pork 2.8 

Milk 3.4 

Oysters 6. 0 

Kice 7.4 

Wheat  bread 8. 9 

Shad 9.2 

Mackerel  .  10.0 


Per  cent. 

Wheat  flour 11.1 

Eo-gs 11.8 

Chops  12.5 

Salmon 14.3 

Hani 14. 6 

Sirloin 15.  0 

Mutton,  leg 15. 0 

Oatmeal 15. 1 

Turkey  r 15.4 

Canned  salmon 19. 3 

Beef,  round 20.  7 

Beans 23.  2 

Lentils  25.1 

Cheese,  whole  milk 27. 1 

Cheese,  skim  milk '. 38.4 


A  more  complete  statement  of  the  nutritive  ingredients  of  these 
foods  may  be  found  in  the  next  table  (III),  which  also  shows  their  rela- 
tive fuel  value  or  potential  energy. 

TABLE  III. — Percentage  composition  of  thirty  common  foods. 


Food. 

Water. 

Protein. 

Fats. 

Carbo- 
hydrates. 

Mineral 
matters. 

Calories 
of  poten- 
tial  en- 
ergy in 
1  pound. 

Beef: 

Per  cent. 
60  0 

Per  cent. 

20  7 

Per  cent. 
8  1 

Per  cent. 

Per  cent. 
1  2 

725 

45.0 

15  0 

14  3 

7 

885 

Mutton,  leg  .            

50.4 

15.1 

15.5 

.7 

935 

41  3 

12  5 

29  3 

6 

1  470 

Smoked  ham  

36.3 

14.6 

32  2 

.9 

1  715 

Pork 

9  5 

2  8 

76  5 

g 

3  280 

Turkey              

42.6 

15  4 

5  6 

.8 

'525 

Halibut 

61  9 

15  1 

4  4 

g 

465 

Mackerel 

40.4 

10  0 

4  3 

7 

365 

Oysters  

87.1 

6.0 

1.2 

3.7 

2  0 

230 

Shad 

35  2 

9  2 

4  8 

7 

375 

Salmon  

40.6 

14  3 

8  8 

1  0 

635 

Canned  salmon 

'    59  3 

19  3 

15  3 

1  2 

1  005 

E{jo\s  .. 

63.1 

11  8 

10  2 

4 

g 

655 

Milk  

87.4 

3.4 

3.7 

4  8 

.7 

310 

Butter 

10  0 

]  0 

85  0 

5 

3  5 

3  615 

Cheese,  whole  milk  

32.2 

27  1 

35  5 

2  3 

3  9 

2  045 

Cheese  skimmed  milk 

41  3 

38  4 

6  8 

8  9 

4  5 

1  165 

Oleomargarine  

10  0 

6 

84  5 

4 

4  5 

3  585 

Lard 

1  0 

99  0 

o 

4  180 

Wheat  bread  

3*>  7 

8  9 

1  9 

55  5 

1  0 

1  280 

Wheat  flour 

11  6 

11  1 

1  j 

75  6 

g 

1  660 

Beans  

13  7 

23  2 

2  1 

57  4 

36 

1  585 

Oatmeal  .  . 

7  7 

15  1 

7  1 

68  3 

2  0 

1  845 

Rice  

12  4 

7  4 

4 

79  4 

4 

1  630 

Sugar 

2  2 

3 

2 

96  7 

5 

1  800 

Potatoes  

68  0 

1  8 

2 

19  1 

9 

395 

Cahbage 

9  0 

1  9 

2 

6  2 

1  2 

170 

Melons  

95  2 

I  i 

Q 

2  5 

6 

90 

Apples 

84  8 

4 

14  3 

g 

275 

To  these  may  be  added  two  kinds  of  food  in  common  use  in  this 
country,  peanuts  and  bananas,  and  one  in  very  common  use  in  south- 
ern Europe  and  eastern  countries,  which  is  almost  unknown  to  our  native 


population,  lentils.    Bananas  are  given  in  Atwater's  tables  with  a  little 
difference  in  figures.    These  analyses  are  from  Church  &  Pavy : 


Food. 

Water. 

Nitrog- 
enous 
matter. 

Fats. 

Carbo- 
hydrates. 

Mineral 
matters. 

Calories 
of  poten- 
tial en- 
ergy in 
1  pound. 

Peanuts  shelled       

Per  cent. 
7  5 

Per  cent. 
24  5 

Per  cent. 
50  0 

Per  cent. 
11  7 

Per  cent. 
1  8 

2  760 

73  9 

4  8 

6 

19  7 

g 

479 

Lentils  shelled 

11  7 

25  1 

1.3 

58  4 

2  2 

1  595 

In  order  to  learn  from  this  table  the  right  amounts  to  be  used,  there 
must  be  given  also  the  theoretical  life  requirement  and  the  additional 
work  requirement.  From  the  various  foods  this  daily  requirement  may 
be  made  up  as  shown  in  the  following  table: 

Daily  food  requirement. 


Protein. 

Fat. 

Carbo- 
hydrates. 

Calories. 

Life  ration                          ... 

Pound. 
.166 

Pound. 
.090 

Pounds. 
0  722 

2  000 

277 

277 

1  0 

3  500 

This  may  be  made  up  in  various  ways, 
an  example : 


The  following  will  serve  as 


Protein. 

Fat. 

Carbo- 
hydrates. 

Calories. 

Pound: 
018 

Pound. 

002 

Pound. 
]91 

.089 

.019 

.555 

150 

143 

006 

.085 

.005 

015 

007 

068 

003 

.097 

.007 

.004 

.079 

Total                     

.288 

.260 

.995 

3,447 

At  first  sight  it  seems  to  the  house  provider  a  hopeless  task  to  appor- 
tion rightly  these  elements,  but  the  staple  articles  are  few  and  the  pro- 
portions easily  learned.  Skill  in  their  combination  and  suitable  prepa- 
ration for  the  table  is,  of  course,  required,  and  there  are  difficult  ques- 
tions regarding  the  relative  digestibility  of  foods  and  the  elements 
which  contribute  to  their  palatability.  A  knowledge  of  their  composi- 
tion will,  however,  be  found  quite  useful. 

Given  raw  materials  of  the  best  quality  and  in  sufficient  quantity  and 
with  good  flavor,  another  difficulty  arises.  What  happens  during  the 
preparation  for  the  table?  How  much  of  that  which  is  bought  reaches 
the  consumer?  What  toll  does  the  kitchen  exact? 


Per  cent  of  waste  in  preparation  for  cooking. 

Potato :  Per  cent. 

Boiled  in  jackets 7  to  10 

Pared  before  boiling ...  35 


Chicken 

Beef,  sirloin  . . . 

Bananas 

Shad 

Oysters  in  shell 


40 
25 
50 
50 

82 


WASTE   OF   REJECTED   PORTIONS   OF   COOKED  FOOD. 


In  tongue  and  ham  the  waste  of  fat  not  eaten  is  30  to  50  per  cent  of 
the  cooked  weight;  in  steaks  and  chops,  40  to  50  per  cent;  in  bread, 
grains,  and  vegetables,  about  15  per  cent.  It  is  in  these  wastes  that  the 
difference  between  the  careless  well-to-do  and  those  who  know  how  to 
save  is  seen.  There  is  also  loss  in  the  body  by  imperfect  digestion  — 
the  ash  of  the  coal. 

Per  cent  of  food  digested. 


Nitrogenous 
matter. 

Carbohy- 
drates. 

Fine  "white  wheat  bread 

Per  cent. 

81 

Per  cent. 
98  5 

95 

Coarse  acid  rye  bread  .  ? 

53 

80 

(Schwartz-brod)  5 

Per  cent 
digested. 

Whole  pease  soaked  and  cooked t 60 

Pease  cooked  a  long  time  and  strained 82. 5 

Pea  flour  cooked  with  milk,  butter,  and  eggs 92 

Corn  meal 80 

Corn  meal  cooked  with  cheese 93 

With  these  points  in  mind,  we  may  now  give  an  approximate  esti- 
mate of  the  weekly  requirement  in  essentials. 

APPROXIMATE    ESTIMATE    OF    THE    REQUIREMENT    OF   A    FAMILY    OF 

FIVE  PERSONS. 

1  Three  of  the  five,  young  or  old  people,  require  2,000  calories  each;  one 
woman  requires  3,000  calories,  one  man  requires  3,500  calories,  making 
an  average  of  2,500  per  person.  Besides  tea,  coffee,  cocoa,  and  other 
extras,  each  person  requires  in  a  week  about : 


Protein, reckoned  as  dry  substance 
Fat.. 


Pounds. 
1 


Sugar  and  starch 

This  amount  gives  about  2,600  calories. 


8 


Butter,  sugar,  suet,  bacon,  beans,  cheese,  flour,  and  all  grains  are 
nearly  dry  food  materials,  containing  only  10  or  12  per  cent  of  water. 
Bread  has  40  to  50,  while  potatoes,  fresh  meat,  and  eggs  have  75  per 
cent,  and  fruit  and  vegetables  contain  80  to  90  per  cent  of  water. 

Fresh  meat,  bacon,  eggs,  wheat,  and  oatmeal  contain  12  to  15  per 
cent  of  nitrogenous  substances.  Cheese,  ham,  sausages,  liver,  beans, 
and  lentils  have  25  to  30  per  cent,  so  that  3  or  4  pounds  of  these  would 
suffice  for  a  week's  supply  (that  is,  would  give  the  1  pound  of  dry 
nitrogenous  substance),  while  it  would  take  7  pounds  or  more  of  the 
first  class,  and  of  milk  16  quarts  to  give  the  amount. 

Meat,  eggs,  and  cheese  contain  about  as  much  of  fat  as  of  nitrogenous 
material,  but  if  flour,  grains,  or  beans  are  used  (containing  only  3  to  5 
per  cent  of  fat)  then  nearly  a  pound  of  butter  or  suet  must  be  added. 

One  pound  of  sugar  a  week  seems  a  fair  average.  This  leaves  5 
pounds  of  starch  to  be  supplied.  Since  rice,  macaroni,  flour,  and  corn 
meal  contain  about  70  per  cent  of  starch,  7  pounds  of  one  or  more  of 
these  substances  must  be  eaten  to  furnish  enough.  Since  potatoes 
contain  only  about  20  per  cent,  some  25  pounds  are  required  to  give 
the  needed  5  pounds  of  starch,  if  no  other  source  is  used.  But  it  has 
been  found  best  to  mix  all  these  materials  in  varying  proportions,  in 
order  to  give  th,e  right  amount  of  each  nutrient  without  furnisniiig  too 
much  of  any. 

The  following  summary  may  serve  as  a  guide  to  a  satisfactory  pro- 
portion : 


As 
bought. 

Nitrogenous 
substances. 

Fats. 

Carbohy- 
drates. 

Pounds. 
3 

Pounds. 
40 

Pounds. 
20 

Pounds. 

Flour  and  grains       

5 

.60 

.05 

3  50 

Butter 

0  8 

70 

Su^ar           .                                      

1 

90 

5 

06 

12 

60 

Fruits                                  

3 

.01 

20 

Total                  

17.8 

1.07 

1.07 

5  20 

The  greatest  efficiency  in  the  uoncalorific  but  most  necessary  flavors 
and  appetizers  must  be  judged  by  the  work  done.  If  the  individual 
under  consideration  comes  up  to  his  maximum  of  clear  inspiring  words 
or  steady  work  day  after  day  then  the  apportionment  and  preparation 
may  be  approved,  but  the  dull  brain  and  lagging  foot  are  sure  indica- 
tions of  wrong  proportions  or  unsuitable  variety,  always  provided  that 
the  fire  is  kept  burning  by  good  stoking,  namely,  sufficient  exercise. 

The  best  food  to  eat,  then,  for  any  given  individual,  is  that  which 
will  enable  him  to  make  the  best  of  himself. 


THE  COOKING  OF  FOOD. 

By  EDWARD  ATKINSON. 

Having  become  interested  in  the  theory  of  nutrition  many  years  ago, 
it  lately  occurred  to  me  that  the  great  mass  of  information  which  had 
been  recently  put  into  a  thoroughly  scientific  form  in  this  and  other 
countries  ought  to  be  applied  to  common  practice.  In  scientific  terms 
the  art  of  cooking  consists  in  the  application  of  a  regulated  degree  of 
heat  to  the  conversion  of  food  material  into  appetizing  and  nutritious 
food.  In  other  words,  I  reached  the  conclusion  that  the  art  of  cooking 
should  be  brought  into  such  simple  form  and  rule  that  any  intelligent 
person,  with  little  or  no  .previous  experience,  should  become  qualified  to 
convert  good  food  material"  in  to  good  feeding;  whereas,  in  the  present 
common  practice,  nothing  could  be  worse  than  the  bad  results  com- 
monly brought  upon  the  table  from  the  domestic  kitchen.  Science 
seemed  to  have  stopped  outside  the  door  of  the  kitchen,  as  will  pres- 
ently appear. 

I  read  Dr.  Mattieu  Williams's  u  Chemistry  of  Cookery."  I  learned  that 
the  way  to  spoil  meat  was  to  boil  it;  the  way  to  cook  an  egg  was  not  to 
boil  it ;  tjie  way  to  render  the  best  meat  indigestible  and  to  convert  the 
finest  flavor  into  bad  smells  was  to  subject  it  to  the  barbarous  processes 
commonly  practiced  at  an  excessive  heat  on  the  iron  stove  and  range. 
I  learned  that  slow  cooking  at  a  moderate  temperature  is  the  only  rule 
in  ninety-five  cases  out  of  a  hundred,  ^t  is  the  only  rule  in  respect  to 
meat,  fish,  and  bread.  I  dived  into  inmmierable  cookery  books  and 
found  that  nine  tenths  of  the  instruction  ih  cooking  was  how  to  over- 
come the  faults  of  the  iron  stove.  I  then  wasted  about  $1,000  dollars 
in  preliminary  experiments  of  complex,  indirect,  and  stupid  kinds.  I 
finally  reached  the.  simple  solution;  so  simple,  that  one  of  my  friends 
remarked,  when  he  saw  it,  that  "nobody  but  a  fool  would  ever  have 
thought  of  it."  I  took  out  several  patents,  in  order  to  keep  the  con- 
trol of  the  subject  until  I  had  exhausted  it.  The  principle  on  which 
I  worked  is  now  dedicated  to  public  use  by  myself,  so  that  neither  my 
patent  nor  any  man's  patent  can  stand  in  the  way  of  the  wide  diffusion 
of  these  simple  processes. 

THE  BIGHT  WAY'  TO   APPLY  HEAT   TO  FOOD  MATERIAL. 

After  observing  the  irremediable  faults  of  all  our  iron  stoves  and 
ranges,  it  occurred  to  me  that  the  right  way  to  apply  heat  to  food 
material  would  be  to  box  it  up  in  a  nonheat-conducting  chamber  to 
which  I  could  convey  heat  by  measure  and  maintain  it  at  any  suitable 
and  even  temperature.  This  has  been  accomplished.  Heat  can  be 
boxed  up  under  an  empty  half  barrel,  under  a  common  stable  bucket, 
under  a  soap  box  lined  with  tin,  or  in  an  oven  to  which  heat  is  conveyed 


10 

through  a  hole  in  the  bottom.     One  of  the  simplest  and  most  effective 
types  of  this  apparatus  will  now  be  described.  (See  Fig.  1). 

A,  box  made  of  pine  or  of  white  wood,  or  any  other  wood  of  close  tex- 
ture least  liable  to  warp  or  shrink.  This  box  may  be  made  of  board 
or  plank,  either  1  or  2  inches  thick.  The  thicker,  the  less  radiation 
or  loss  of  heat  there  will  be.  It  should  be  lined  with  tin,  and  the  tin 
should  be  carried  around  the  bottom  edges  and  turned  up  outside  so 
that  the  wooden  surfaces  of  the  edges  may  not  come  in  direct  contact 
with  the  metallic  top  of  the  table  on  which  the  oven  is  to  be  placed.  If 
the  outside  of  this  box  is  also  covered  with  tin  or  sheet  metal  of  any 
kind,  it  will  become  absolutely  safe  to  make  use  of  it  night  or  day,  with- 
out any  other  precautions  than  due  care  of  the  lamp  by  which  it  is 
heated.  But  the  outer  covering  of  metal  will  make  the  box  more 
expensive,  and  is  not  required  for  day  service  under  supervision. 


FIG.  1.— Section  of  cooking  box. 

B,  metallic  table,  or  a  table  with  a  metal  top,  on  which  the  box  is 
to  be  placed  and  to  which  it  may  be  hinged.  Hole  in  the  middle  2£ 
inches  in  diameter. 

0,  hinge. 

_D,  double  tube  open  at  the  bottom  over  the  lamp  chimney  and  over 
the  hole  in  the  metallic  table.  Both  tubes  may  be  open  at  the  sides  by 
openings  to  match  each  other,  say  half  an  inch  in  width  by  2 'inches 
in  length  on  each  quarter.  The  upper  tube,  supporting  a  plate,  may  be 
turned  on  the  lower  tube  so  as  to  open  the  way  for  direct  heat  to  pass 
into  the  box  through  the  openings  for  very  quick  work,  or  the  upper 
tube  may  be  turned  upon  the  lower  one  so  as  to  close  these  openings, 
which  are  marked  E.  For  the  ordinary  processes  of  cooking  they 
should  be  closed. 

A  handle  is  shown  by  which  this  box  may  be  turned  backward  or  end 
up.  A  convenient  size  would  be  to  make  the  space  indicated  by  the 


11 

four  letters,  &,  a,  a,  a,  14  inches  each  way.  In  addition  to  that  space 
will  be  the  space  within  the  box  under  the  slant  at  the  front.  The  object 
in  adding  this  part  under  the  slant  is,  that  the  box  may  clear  any  cook- 
ing vessel  which  is  placed  on  the  tube  over  the  lamp  when  it  is  turned 
upon  end.  Otherwise,  it  is  necessary  to  lift  the  box,  which  is  an  incon- 
venient method.  In  this  space  under  the  slant  vessels  may  be  -placed 
for  cooking  the  materials  which  require  a  lesser  degree  of  heat.  The 
hottest  place  will  be  immediately  over  the  lamp  on  the  upper  tube. 
The  next  hottest  places  will  be  around  the  tube  Z>.  The  lesser  degree 
of  heat  will  be  in  front,  under  the  slant.  I  prefer  earthen  jars  and 
dishes  to  metal,  except  for  roasting  pans,  broiling,  or  sauteing. 

A  second  diagram  (Fig.  2)  of  the  oven  is  given  in  perspective  upon  a 
table  wide  enough  on  every  side  to  hold  the  fragments  of  the  wooden  box, 
in  the  remote  contingency  that  through  carelessness  it  should  be  ignited 
by  an  excess  of  heat.  The  ordinary  heat  required  for  cooking  appears 


FIG.  2.— Cooking  box  in  perspective. 

to  have  no  effect  in  scorching  the  wood.  The  heat  may  shrink  even 
the  best  seasoned  wood,  so  that  after  a  few  weeks7  use  it  will  become 
expedient  to  drive  a  strip  into  the  cracks  which  may  have  opened  at 
the  joints.  The  oven  might  also  possibly  be  scorched  and  even  ignited 
if  the  lamp  were  placed  under  the  hole  in  the  table  without  the  tube  or 
any  other  obstruction  between  it  and  the  top  of  the  box. 

For  the  reason  that  this  cooking  apparatus  is  made  of  wood,  whicli 
may  in  a  very  long  period  be  carbonized  or  may  possibly  be  ignited  by 
careless  use,  I  do  not  recommend  it  for  night  work  unless  it  is  placed 
upon  a  table  on  which  the  fragments  may  burn  without  risk,  or  unless 
the  table  is  placed  upon  a  brick  or  concrete  floor,  where  fragments  of 
the  cooking  box  might  burn  without  hazard.  There  is  no  other  non- 
heat-conducting  material  so  effective  and  so  cheap  as  the  compact 
kinds  of  wood,  like  white  wood  or  pine,  and  with  common  prudence 
they  may  be  safely  used. 


12 

EVILS  OF  IMPROPERLY  COOKED  FOOD. 

Anybody  can  cook  with  this  apparatus.  Minute  directions,  recipes, 
etc.,  are  given  in  my  book  on  the  Science  of  Nutrition.  Nobody  can  cook 
properly  on  an  iron  stove  or  range  without  wasting  heat,  time,  temper, 
and  even  skill.  It  takes  long  practice  to  overcome  the  faults  of  the  iron 
stove  and  of  the  fuel  used  in  it,  and  then  the  results  are  often  bad. 
-  The  chief  fault  in  cooking  is  cooking  quickly  at  a  high  and  varying 
temperature.  One  of  the  principal  causes  of  indigestion  is  the  chemi- 
cal change  which  is  wrought  by  a  high  heat  upon  the  fats  of  meat.  Dr. 
Pavy,  one  of  the  earliest  investigators,  uses  the  following  language  in 
his  Treatise  on  Food  and  Dietetics :  "  Fat  under  a  prolonged  exposure 
to  a  strong  heat  undergoes  decomposition,  attended  with  a  production 
of  fatty  acids  and  an  acrid  volatile  product  known  as  acroline,  which 
may  cause  derangement  of  a  weak  stomach." 

This  evil  can  be  avoided  by  my  methods  of  cooking.  I  have  on 
record  many  instances  of  the  cure  of  dyspepsia  and  indigestion  by  the 
substitution  of  food  cooked  slowly  at  a  moderate  heat  by  the  methods 
which  I  have  promoted,  proving  conclusively  what  Dr.  Pavy  says.  I 
have  also  two  records  of  very  puny  children  who  needed  meat  and 
would  not  eat  it  when  cooked  in  a  cooking  stove.  Since  my  oven  was 
adopted,  they  have  eaten  meat  and  have  become  stout  and  strong.  I 
have  become  satisfied  that  about  half  the  prevalent  dyspepsia  is  due 
to  semistarvation,  because  the  victims  can  not  digest  badly  cooked 
food.  I  am  well  satisfied  that  if  any  shrewd  saloon-keeper  who  wants 
to  make  more  money  will  make  strong  beef  soup  from  the  heads,  pal- 
ates, and  well-cleaned  hoofs  of  beef  cattle,  or  lentil  broth  from  lentils, 
it  will  cost  him  less  than  his  whisky  and  beer  now  cost,  and,  if  put  on 
tap  alongside  either,  each  will  sell  freely  in  place  of  the  liquor  or  in 
addition,  because  more  than  half  the  craving  for  stimulants  is  due  to 
want  of  well-cooked  food.  Who  will  try  this"?  "The  saloon"  will  have 
a  better  reputation  if  this  suggestion  should  prove  to  be  profitable  in 
practice. 

_  The  question  has  been  put  to  me,  what  is  the  best  food  to  eat?  The 
reply  is,  the  best-cooked  food  of  every  kind  is  the  best  to  eat;  the  best 
food  material  when  badly  cooked  is  not  fit  to  eat.  The  choice  of  the 
best  food  cooked  in  the  right  way  must  be  left  to  each  person.  It  will 
vary  with  the  work  which  is  to  be  accomplished,  with  the  special  taste 
and  digestive  power  of  each  individual,  and  with  other  conditions. 

DIVERS  DIETARIES. 

Dealing  with  the  normal  conditions  of  people  at  moderate  work,  die- 
taries have  been  computed.  In  my  book  will  be  found  12  dietaries, 
varying  from  a  cost  at  the  time  they  were  computed  in  the  city  of 
Boston  from  a  fraction  under  14  cents  a  day  to  each  adult  person  up  to 
28  cents  a  day.  In  the  vernacular,  "  you  pays  your  money  and  takes 


13 


your  choice  of  the  kind  of  meat  that  you  wishes  to  eat."  It  will  be  ob- 
served in  the  example  given  below  that  the  grain,  butter,  and  vegetables 
are  called  constants.  They  are  the  same  in  all  the  proposed  dietaries. 
This  part  of  the  dietary  would  form  a  constant  element  in  any  normal 
selection.  The  variations  may  be  made  in  the  choice  of  meat  and  fish. 

A  man  in  active  work  may  buy  all  the  food  that  he  can  consume  and 
digest  in  the  city  of  Boston  at  the  present  time  for  less  than  $1  a 
week,  if  he  is  content  with  nutritious  and  appetizing  dishes  made  of 
shin  or  neck  of  beef,  scrag  of  mutton,  halibut  nape,  etc.  He  may  cook 
in  his  own  room  in  a  far  better  way,  and  bring  the  food  to  a  much  more 
appetizing  and  digestible  condition,  than  any  food  that  he  can  get  at 
any  common  restaurant  or  boarding  house  at  a  reasonable  price.  If  he 
can  afford  to  do  so,  he  can  substitute  for  shin  of  beef  any  luxury,  such 
as  tenderloin  of  beef,  venison,  canvasback  ducks,  Philadelphia  capons, 
terrapin,  or  soft-shelled  crabs.  He  can  also  cook  these  luxuries  in  a 
manner  equal  to  anything  that  can  be  done  by  the  most  skillful  cook  on 
the  ordinary  stove  or  range  5  in  fact,  better.  If  any  one  doubts  this 
assertion,  try  it;  any  one  can  do  it. 

The  method  of  computing  these  dietaries  is  now  submitted,  the  exam- 
ple being  No.  1  of  the  series  of  12.  The  rest  will  be  found  in  the  Sci- 
ence of  Nutrition. 

Table  showing  the  computation  of  dietary   Aro.  1. 
CONSTANTS  IN  DIETARY  NO.  1— LOW  COST. 


Article. 

Pounds. 

Protein. 

Fat. 

Carbohy- 
drate. 

Calories. 

Cost  at  Bos- 
ton prices, 
1891. 

Flour  

22 

2.64 

.44 

15.18 

36,  520 

$0  55 

12 

1  63 

84 

7  60 

19  800 

48 

Butter      

2 

.02 

1.73 

7,230 

50 

Suet 

2 

1  78 

7  ^00 

]2 

Suo-ar  

2 

1.93 

3,600 

10 

10 

20 

2  10 

4  300 

25 

Beets           

. 

Onions          

7 

.13 

.03 

.50 

1,120 

.25 

Cabbage        

For  thirty  days  

57 

4.67 

4  82 

27  31 

79  770 

2  31 

1  90 

155 

160 

910 

2  659 

077 

VARIABLES  IN  DIETARY  NO.  1— LOW  COST. 


Beef,  neck,  or  shin  (including  \vaste). 

12 

2.00 

.40 

5,  °00 

.72 

"Mjittnn   iiffk 

5 

62 

34 

2  476 

30 

Bacon       

4 

40 

2  80 

11  840 

48 

Beef  liver 

2 

40 

10 

1  120 

12 

Veal   .... 

1 

19 

03 

400 

08 

Salt  pork 

1 

03 

78 

3  160 

08 

For  thirty  days  

25 

3  64 

4  45 

24  '256 

1  78 

Total 

82 

8  31 

9  27 

27  31 

10  026 

4  09 

For  one  day     ... 

2  73 

277 

309 

910 

3  467  05 

136 

The  prices  on  which  these  computations  are  made  were  the  retail 
prices  in  Boston,  Mass.,  in  the  first  six  months  of  the  year  1891*.  At 
the  prices  of  the  finer  cuts  of  meat  the  same  elements  of  nutrition 
cost  28  cents  a  day. 


14 

The  art  of  making  bread  of  the  very  best  quality  from  good  material 
is  very  simple,  provided  one  be  furnished  with  suitable  apparatus  and 
with  a  simple  rule  giving  the  time  of  each  part  of  the  operation.  The 
art  of  broiling  a  steak  under  a  soap  box  lined  with  tin,  so  that  it  shall 
be  served  in  perfection,  consists  only  in  first  lifting  the  box,  then  put- 
ting the  pan  and  the  grill,  with  the  steak  upon  it,  upon  the  plate,  then 
placing  the  box  over  it,  and  then  leaving  it  subject  to  the  heat  of  the 
lamp  for  fifteen  minutes  to  half  an  hour,  according  to  the  thickness  ot 
the  steak.  The  art  of  cooking  green  vegetables  consists  in  preparing 
them,  putting  them  into  the  vegetable  dishes  in  which  they  are  to  be 
served,  with  salt,  pepper,  or  butter,  or  whatever  is  chosen  to  go  with 
them.  These  accessories  may  be  added  in  the  process  of  cooking  or 
after  the  vegetables  are  cooked.  The  whole  art  consists  in  placing  the 
vegetable  dishes  on  the  metallic  table,  under  which  the  lamp  is  placed, 
and  then  putting  the  soap  box  or  the  bucket  over  the  dishes.  A  little 
water  may  be  added  if  they  are  somewhat  dry.  Whoever  thinks  that 
he  or  she  can  accomplish  this  mystery  in  this  way  can  become  a  good 
cook  by  practicing  one,  two,  or  three  days — perhaps  a  week — on  the 
rules  laid  down  in  my  book,  without  any  other  teaching. 

DIETARY  FOB  FIVE  PERSONS — COST. 

In  the  preceding  article  prepared  by  my  coadjutor,  a  dietary  is 
given  for  a  family  of  five  persons,  old  and  young,  on  the  standard  of 
3,500  heat  units,  or  "  calories,"  per  day  for  a  workinginan,  women,  and 
children  in  due  proportion.  This  dietary  for  five  persons  calls  for 
12,500  calories  for  the  five,  averaging  2,500  each.  At  the  present  prices 
of  meat  and  vegetables  in  the  city  of  Boston  that  number  of  calories 
can  be  bought  at  the  rate  of  70  cents  or  less  a  week  for  each  of  the  five 
persons  in  wholesome,  appetizing  food  material.  This  would  make 
the  cost  of  the  food  for  the  family  13.50,  which  comes  to  $182  a  year. 
Add  $8  for  tea  and  coffee  and  you  bring  the  subsistence  of  the  family 
of  five  to  a  cost  of  $190  a  year  for  the  food  material.  Add  $10  for  fruit 
and  sundries,  and  you  reach  $200 — $40  each.  Fifty  dollars  is  a  safer 
standard  to  work  by,  or  $1  a  week.  This  supply  of  food  can  be  readily 
cooked  in  my  cooking  apparatus,  with  kerosene  oil  consumed  in  a  com- 
mon lamp  at  the  rate  of  1  quart  a  day.  I  buy  a  high  grade  of  oil  (150° 
Jj\,  flash  test),  at  10  cents  a  gallon,  which  is  rather  a  fancy  price.  At 
that  rate  the  fuel  required  at  this  standard  of  nutrition  for  five  persons 
would  cost  less  than  $10  for  the  year — $2  each. 

TESTIMONY  IN  FAYOR   OF   SCIENTIFIC   COOKING. 

On  the  testimony  of  several  hundred  witnesses  who  have  learned  to 
cook  in  the  Aladdin*  oven,  and  of  quite  a  large  number  who  are  now 
practicing  box  and  barrel  cooking,  the  days  of  the  iron  stove  and  range 

*  The  name  "Aladdin"  is  used  through  out  this  publication,  and  being  the  author's 
invention  and  used  by  him  as  a  trade-mark,  it  should  be  noted  that  though  patented 
by  Dr.  Atkinson  he  has  dedicated  his  patents  to  the  public  use,  and  anyone  who 
wishes  to  do  so  is  at  liberty  to  make  and  use  these  ovens.  (See  page  18.) 


15 

are  numbered.    The  use  of  coal  for  cooking  will  be  continued  only  by 
those  who  do  not  know  how  to  cook.    All  ovens  should  be  of  non 
metallic  material;  all  fuel  for  cooking  should  be  oil  or  gas. 

The  conclusion  may  be  put  in  the  words  of  two  persons,  each  using 
the  same  language  without  collusion.  Each  makes  the  following 
report  in  almost  the  same  words  in  answer  to  a  general  inquiry  to 
all  who  have  dared  to  try  my  methods:  Life  is  better  worth  living 
with  the  Aladdin  oven  and  without  a  cook  than  it  ever  was  before 
without  the  oven  and  with  such  cooks  as  can  be  had  in  the  rural  dis- 
tricts. 

The  Rev.  Booker  Washington,  the  very  able  principal  of  the  Tuske- 
gee  (colored)  Institute,  in  Alabama,  in  order  to  promote  the  progress 
of  the  pupils,  600  in  number,  in  the  school  in  which  he  is  principal, 
lately  applied  to  me  for  a  battery  of  Aladdin  ovens  with  which  he 
might  cook  the  cheaper  kinds  of  meats  so  as  to  make  them  suitable  for 
the  pupils. 

I  advised  him  not  to  expend  so  much  money,  and  since  I  could  not 
afford  to  give  him  the  regular  Aladdin s,  I  made  a  plan  for  a  large  oven 
to  be  built  of  plank  2  or  3  inches  thick,  with  a  metal  bottom,  the  inte- 
rior to  be  plastered  with  common  mortar  on  laths  nailed  solid,  of  a 
dovetailed  shape. 

He  tried  this  first  on  a  moderate- sized  oven,  in  which  he  proved 
conclusively  that  even  the  toughest  beef  could  be  made  nutritious, 
tender,  and  appetizing.  He  is  now  building  a  large  oven  with  which 
to  supply  the  whole  school  of  several  hundred  students.  I  charged 
him  not  to  place  this  oven  in  any  building  where  the  ignition  of  the 
plank  could  expose  other  property  to  any  danger.  It  is  not  probable 
that  there  will  be  any  danger.  His  undertaking  appears  to  be  an 
entire  success. 

SOME  OBJECTIONS  ANSWERED. 

With  this  I  leave  the  matter  to  the  tender  mercies  of  the  incredulous, 
who,  for  lack  of  enterprise,  will  remain  subject  to  what  another  witness 
named  "  stove  slavery,"  from  which  she  said  she  had  herself  been 
redeemed  by  the  adoption  of  the  Aladdin  oven.  The  first  objection 
usually  is,  what  shall  we  do  for  hot  water?  My  reply  is,  heat  water 
with  one  of  the  many  water-heaters  now  made.  You  will  waste  less 
coal.  Make  your  tea  on  the  table  with  water  at  the  instant  it  comes  to 
the  boiling  point,  the  only  true  way  to  make  tea.  But  then  comes  the 
great  bugbear,  what  shall  we  do  for  hot  water  to  wash  dishes  in? 
Answer,  do  without  it.  Put  cold  water  or  tepid  water  in  the  pan,  add 
a  great  spoonful  of  kerosene  oil.  Mop  the  dishes  in  that,  and  then  wipe 
them.  Kerosene  oil  has  an  affinity  for  grease  j  it  is  antiseptic.  Your 


16 


dishes  will  be  cleaned  in  half  the  time  and  more  thoroughly  than  with 
hot  water  and  soap,  and  your  hands  will  be  less  liable  to  become 
chapped  in  winter. 


THE   ALADDIN  OVEN. 


I  retain  for  personal  convenience  the  name  of  "Aladdin  oven"  as  a 
trade  mark  to  be  affixed  to  such  ovens  as  may  be  ordered  from  myself 


SQUASH    7       \  TOMATOES 


FISH 


\    BEEF     AND    POTATOES 


-I) 


FIG.  3.— Sectional  view  of  Aladdin  oven. 

or  from  my  agents.  I  have  taken  patents  on  the  development  of  this 
oven,  which  are  now  dedicated  to  public  u'se  without  claim  on  my  part 
for  royalty  or  compensation.  My  purpose  in  taking  these  patents  was 


17 

to  protect  my  processes  until  they  had  been  perfected,  but  I  can  add 
nothing  more  to  the  form  or  structure  of  the  Aladdin  oven  as  it  is  now 
made.  Any  one  who  desires  to  do  so  is  at  liberty  to  make  and  use 
these  ovens. 

DESCRIPTION   OF   THE   ALADDIN  OVEN. 

A,  box  made  of  nonheat-couducting  material,  which  had  better  be  incombustible. 
It  should  be  lined  with  metal.  I  have  used  slabs  of  indurated  fiber  made  of  wood 
pulp  vulcanized,  with  a  padding  of  asbestos  sponge  inside  these  plates,  between 
them  and  the  metallic  lining  of  the  outer  oven.  The  bottom  of  the  oven  must  be 
made  of  incombustible  material,  as  the  heat  close  to  the  chimney  would  carbonize 
and  perhaps  ignite  any  combustible  material.  I  make  the  bottom  in  the  form  of  a 
metallic  case  packed  with  asbestos  sponge. 

B  is  the  inner  oven  or  food  receptacle  made  of  sheet  iron,  set  on  legs  1  inch  in 
height.  It  will  be  remarked  that  there  is  no  opening  between  the  lamp  and  this 
inner  oven.  The  heat  circulates  around  the  outside  and  the  products  of  combustion 
escape  by  way  of  the  same  opening  through  which  the  heat  passes.  I  use  a  reducing 
plate  to  diminish  the  size  of  this  opening  when  I  wish  to  get  a  greater  heat  than  can 
be  had  with  the  opening  of  the  full  size. 

C  is  a  cap  opening  a  ventilator  to  the  inner  oven,  which  it  is  sometimes  useful  to 
open  to  let  off  an  excess  of  humidity  in  order  to  give  a  brown  crust  to  articles  that 
may  be  within.  Those  who  wish  to  try  scientific  experiments  to  measure  the  heat 
may  have  this  cap  prepared  so  as  to  hold  a  thermometer  with  the  bulb  inside  and 
the  reading  outside. 

This  oven  is  placed  upon  the  metallic  table  E.  It  is  desirable  to  have  this  metal- 
lic table  placed  on  another  one  of  about  the  same  height,  with  a  closed  top  on  which 
the  lamp  is  placed.  These  two  metallic  tables,  the  lamp,  and  sundry  cooking  uten- 
sils are  supplied  when  the  Alladin  oven  is  ordered  with  the  full  equipment. 

The  door  of  the  inner  oven  swings  sideways  on  hinges  at  the  right.  The  door  of 
the  outer  oven  is  fitted  with  hinges  on  the  lower  side  so  that  when  let  down  it  may 
be  held  vertically;  or,  if  desired  for  use  as  a  shelf,  it  is  furnished  with  chains  which 
hold  it  in  a  horizontal  position. 

The  development  of  this  oven  has  been  along  and  somewhat  difficult 
process  of  empirical  research;  costly  and  in  many  respects  useless  in 
working  by  complex  methods  at  first.  In  its  final  form,  as  it  is  now 
made,  I  think  it  is  complete,  and  as  simple  as  it  can  be  for  the  most 
effective  service. 

Eeference  has  been  made  in  the  text  to  ovens  that  have  been  made 
on  this  plan  of  pine  plank  plastered  within  with  solid  plastering,  this 
box  being  placed  upon  the  metallic  table  with  a  hole  in  the  top  through 
which  the  heat  is  passed.  When  such  an  oven  is  built  for  permanent 
use  I  should  recommend  putting  a  metal  curb  around  the  opening 
through  which  the  heat  passes  to  hold  the  plastering  over  the  metal 
on  the  floor,  else  there  may  be  a  considerable  loss  of  heat  by  radiation 
through  the  bottom  of  the  outer  oven.  The  walls  of  the  outer  oven  that 
I  am  now  constructing  are  about  1  inch  thick.  Of  course  the  thicker 
these  walls  the  more  complete  will  be  the  check  to  the  radiation  of 
heat  and  the  more  fully  will  the  heat  be  converted  into  the  work  of 
cooking. 

24564 2 


18 

I  trust  that  these  suggestions  may  lead  to  further  research  at  the 
several  agricultural  experiment  stations  to  the  end  that  the  science  of 
cooking  may  be  converted  into  a  very  simple  art  that  any  one  of  ordi- 
nary intelligence  may  practice.  I  am  confident  that  such  will  be  the 
conclusion  of  the  whole  matter,  and  I  therefore  respectfully  present  these 
plans  and  other  matters  contained  in  the  text  on  my  own  behalf  and 
that  of  my  most  efficient  scientific  coadjutor,  Mrs.  Richards,  in  the 
hope  that  they  will  serve  a  useful  purpose. 


COOKING  AS  NOW  PRACTICED 
SCARCITY  OF  INFORMATION  REGARDING  COOKING. 

The  subject  of  cooking  is  now  attracting  wide  attention.  It  is,  how- 
ever, being  treated  in  a  one-sided  way,  the  problem  dealt  with  being 
mainly  how-to  promote  instruction  in  cooking  as  a  business,  or  how 
to  promote  a  knowledge  of  cooking  so  as  to  enable  employees  to  train 
cooks  in  their  own  service  or  to  have  them  trained.  All  this  is  excel- 
lent in  its  way.  Various  methods  are  proposed,  involving  a  long  proc- 
ess of  instruction,  and  implying  the  training  of  a  class  who  will 
serve  such  other  members  of  the  community  as  are  able  to  employ  them. 
This  view  of  the  matter  has  of  necessity  been  adopted  because  cooking 
has  not  yet  been  popularly  treated  or  taught  in  any  comprehensive 
manner  as  a  department  of  the  science  of  nutrition. 

There  are  a  great  number  of  works  of  a  more  or  less  scientific  char- 
acter relating  to  the  nutrition  of  the  soil,  the  plant,  and  the  beast,  from 
which  one  who  knows  how  to  selftct  can  derive  a  vast  deal  of  informa- 
tion j  there  are  but  few  treatises  upon  the  nutrition  of  mankind,  and 
there  is  yet  in  common  use  no  popular  cookery  book  within  my  knowl- 
edge in  which  the  art  of  cooking  is  explained  in  a  really  scientific  man- 
ner. Cooking  is  commonly  bad  because  science  has  stopped  outside 
the  door  of  the  domestic  kitchen  and  the  present  methods  of  teaching 
the  art  are  almost  wholly  empirical. 

There  are  certain  great  and  comprehensive  works  upon  cooking  by 
those  who  have  been  held  to  be  masters  of  the  art.  But  of  what  were 
they  masters?  They  may  have  been  masters  of  the  art  of  combining 
food  material  in  order  to  secure  certain  flavors,  but  in  cooking  they 
were  masters  only  of  empirical  methods  of  adapting  to  the  development 
of  certain  results  of  an  appetizing  kind  such  apparatus  as  is  in  custom- 
ary use  in  each  country.  Cooking  apparatus  varies  in  different  coun- 
tries, the  variation  being  due  in  great  measure  to  the  relative  scarcity 
or  abundance  of  fuel.  Ingenuity  rather  than  science  has  been  applied 
to  making  cooking  apparatus  more  with  a  view  to  the  consumption  of 
the  kind  of  fuel  that  is  available  in  each  country  than  to  adapting 
the  use  of  fuel  and  the  development  of  heat  to  a  true  science  of  pre- 
paring food.  It  follows  that  under  the  pressure  of  necessity  the 


19 

practice  of  cooking  in  many  countries  where  fuel  is  deficient  is  better 
comprehended  by  the  poor  who  are  compelled  to  exercise  the  greatest 
economy  than  by  the  rich. 

EXPERIMENTAL   SELECTION  OF  NUTRITIOUS  FOOD. 

It  is  also  to  be  observed  that  without  any  knowledge  of  the  science 
of  nutrition  the  people  of  various  countries  and  of  different  races  have 
established  by  a  process  of  natural  selection  certain  kinds  or  combina- 
tions of  food  material  that  can  be  obtained  at  the  least  relative  cost, 
but  which  are  substantially  complete  in  the  relative  proportions  of  the 
so-called  nutrients — nitrogen,  starch,  and  fat — each  of  which  is  neces- 
sary in  due  proportion  to  the  nourishment  and  complete  development 
of  the  human  animal.  They  have  also  learned  how  to  cook  them  so  as 
to  get  the  most  nutriment  from  them.  How  very  little  the  science  of 
nutrition  is  comprehended  may  be  witnessed  by  the  frequent  reference 
to  the  inhabitants  of  India,  China,  and  Japan  as  being  an  almost 
exclusively  rice-fed  people.  If  they  were  wholly  a  rice-fed  people  they 
would  be  a  half- starved  people,  because  rice  is  very  deficient  in  one  of 
the  most  essential  elements  of  nutrition,  nitrogen. 

It  will  be  observed  that  the  principal  elements  of  nutrition  consist 
in  certain  proportions,  varying  slightly  in  the  standards  that  have 
been  established  on  a  scientific  basis,  but,  according  to  the  standard  of 
this  country,  for  a  man  in  active  work,  consisting  of  450  grams  (about 
1  pound)  of  the  carbohydrates  or  starch  compounds,  125  grams  (about 
one-fourth  pound)  of  the  proteid  or  nitrogenous  compounds,  and  125 
grams  (about  one-fourth  pound)  of  fat,  either  vegetable  or  animal,  per 
day.  In  dealing  with  this  subject  for  the  present  purpose  certain  min- 
eral elements,  which  are  found  in  sufficient  measure  in  almost  every 
variety  of  food,  need  not  be  dealt  with. 

If  regard  be  given  to  the  actual  diet  of  the  people  of  India,  it  will  be 
observed  that  leguminous  plants  are  an  essential  element.  The  area  of 
land  devoted  to  the  cultivation  of  beans,  pease,  lentils,  and  other  legumes, 
all  of  which  are  rich  in  protein  or  the  nitrogen  element,  is  greater  than 
the  area  of  land  devoted  to  the  cultivation  of  rice.  It  is  from  the  com- 
bination of  these  legumes  with  the  rice  that  the  energy,  such  as  it  is, 
of  the  people  of  India  is  sustained.  The  people  of  India  and  China  • 
also  obtain  a  supply  of  vegetable  oil  or  fat  from  beans  and  pease.  The 
kernel  of  the  common  peanut  when  heated  in  moderate  degree,  and 
then  pressed,  yields  one- half  its  weight  in  a  food  oil.  Nearly  one-half 
of  the  weight  of  the  cake  remaining  after  the  oil  has  been  expressed 
consists  of  albuminoids  rich  in  nitrogen,  and  very  nutritious  when  fed 
to  stock  or  used  as  a  fertilizer. 

In  Japan  the  common  food  of  the  working  people  is  called  "  miso/ 
This  is  a  ferment  of  rice  or  barley  combined  with  beans  or  pease,  pre- 
pared so  as  to  utilize  the  greatest  amount  of  nutriment. 


20 

In  the  poorer  countries  of  Europe  it  will  be  remarked  that  wherever 
meat,  which  is  the  chief  source  of  nitrogen  in  the  rich  countries,  is  costly 
and  therefore  out  of  the  reach  of  the  masses,  a  nitrogenous  substitute 
is  found  in  cheese,  especially  the  cheese  made  from  skimmed  milk,  of 
which  the  Parmesan  is  one  variety.  This  is  wholly  unfit  to  be  eaten 
in  the  raw  state,  but  very  digestible  and  nutritious  when  cooked  with 
macaroni  or  when  grated  and  cooked  in  the  hot  vegetable  soups  with 
which  it  is  commonly  served. 

Again,  it  will  be  remarked  that  Italians  are,  as  a  rule,  good  cooks. 
To  what  may  this  be  attributed?  May  it  not  be  to  their  enforced  econ- 
omy in  fuel?  They  must  save  heat,  and  they  cook  sJowly,  which  is  the 
secret  of  good  cooking.  Next  the  French  may  be  cited  as,  on  the  whole, 
a  nation  of  good  cooks,  fully  comprehending  the  art  of  enforced  econ- 
omy in  the  use  both  of  food  material  and  of  fuel. 

The  French  as  a  people  are  very  skillful  in  the  combination  of  legum- 
inous plants  and  vegetables  with  other  kinds  of  food  material  in  their 
well-known  bouillon,  pot-au-feu,  and  other  national  dishes.  Every  one 
who  has  paid  any  attention  to  the  subject  has  observed  the  extreme 
economy  of  the  French  in  the  use  of  fuel. 

EVILS   OF   THE   IRON   COOKING  RANGE. 

The  writer  is  not  well  enough  informed  to  pass  upon  the  common 
method  of  cooking  in  England  where  coal  is  relatively  abundant  and 
cheap,  and  where  the  common  people  are  enabled  to  burn  it  in  that 
most  unscientific,  unfit,  and  abominable  invention,  the  cooking  stove 
or  range  made  of  iron;  very  useful  in  its  day  and  generation,  but  now 
about  to  be  slowly  but  surely  discarded.  There  is,  however,  one  very 
safe  standard  by  which  to  form  a  judgment  in  regard  to  the  prepara- 
tion of  the  food  of  any  people.  Wherever  pills  or  quack  medicines  are 
plentiful  and  widely  advertised  the  cooking  is  sure  to  be  bad.  Pills 
are  conspicuously  abundant  in  Great  Britain,  perhaps  more  so  than  in 
the  United  States. 

Passing  from  England  to  this  country,  we  come  to  the  highest  devel- 
opment of  misdirected  invention  in  the  various  kinds  of  iron  stoves  and 
ranges  of  the  most  infernal  type  conceivable.  They  are  all  warranted 
to  work  at  the  highest  pressure  in  quickly  cooking  everything  that  is 
put  into  or  upon  them,  quick  cooking  being  as  a  rule  very  bad  cooking. 
In  the  eastern  part  of  this  country  we  enjoy  the  greatest  abundance  of 
the  most  unsuitable  fuel,  anthracite  coal;  in  the  West  a  yet  greater 
abundance  of  dirty,  bituminous  coal.  We  also  enjoy  the  greatest 
abundance  of  every  kind  of  food  material,  especially  fat  pork,  which,  in 
combination  with  other  articles,  is  converted  by  the  rapid  and  destruct- 
ive heat  of  the  American  frying  pan  into  the  worst  possible  and  most 
indigestible  condition  before  it  is  served  upon  the  table.  We  have  also 
the  greatest  abundance  of  the  best  wheat  flour  and  the  most  adequate 
supply  of  the  worst  bread,  frequently  served  in  the  form  of  hot  biscuits. 


21 

In  the  early  settlement  of  many  Western  States,  the  supply  of  suita- 
ble fuel  has  been  secured  by  raising  and  burning  Indian  corn  (maize) 
rather  than  by  mining  and  moving  coal — sod  corn,  as  the  first  crop  is 
named,  being  produced  at  a  cost  of  about  $3  a  ton,  weighing  corn  and 
cob  together. 

If  one  had  the  faculty  of  composing  another  satirical  poem  on  the 
model  of  "  The  Devil's  Walk,"  one  might  represent  the  Devil  as  a  com- 
mercial traveler  placing  before  the  people  of  this  country  the  American 
cooking  stove  in  its  most  attractive  form  fitted  with  the  quickly  heated 
oven  and  an  abundant  supply  of  frying  pans.  The  motive  of  this  work 
might  be  treated  as  the  true  vocation  of  his  satanic  majesty,  to  wit, 
the  promotion  of  dyspepsia,  of  the  thirst  for  liquor,  and  of  all  the 
other  accompanying  evils  of  bad  cooking.  He  might  also  be  acting  at 
the  same  time  as  a  commercial  traveler  for  the  sale  of  the  innumerable 
types  of  quack  medicines  with  which  this  country  is  infested  to  per- 
haps a  greater  extent  than  any  other;  the  most  malignant  expression 
of  this  correlative  of  bad  cooking  being  the  disfigurement  of  our  rural 
scenery  by  lying  advertisements  of  the  most  atrocious  kind. 

INSTRUCTION  OF   ORDINARY   COOKERY  BOOKS. 

If  regard  be  given  to  the  greater  number  of  cookery  books,  it  will 
be  observed  that  the  instructions  given  in  them  may  be  divided  into 
two  distinct  parts,  first,  combining  or  mixing  food  material;  second, 
subjecting  this  material  to  the  application  of  heat.  These  instructions 
consist  in  directions  for  making  the  choice  of  food  materials  and  for 
measuring  them  out  in  certain  proportions  and  combining  them  in  cer- 
tain ways.  What  will  be  the  result  of  these  combinations  depends 
much  more  upon  how  they  are  cooked  than  upon  the  method  or  pro- 
portion in  which  they  are  combined.  Cooking  consists  in  applying 
heat  to  the  chemical  conversion  of  these  food  materials,  a  work  which 
corresponds  to  that  of  the  chemical  laboratory  in  the  dissociation 
and  synthesis  of  the  subjects  that  are  dealt  with  in  chemistry. 

The  true  problem  in  cooking  is  to  substitute  what  may  be  called  pre- 
digestion  for  a  part  of  the  work  of  the  digestive  organs  in  order  to 
enable  them  to  assimilate  all  that  is  suitable  and  reject  that  which 
does  not  nourish.  This  statement  suggests  a  wide  chapter  in  chemical 
physiology,  which  would  be  out  of  place  in  this  treatise. 

We  may  now  take  up  the  second  class  of  instructions  which  are  given 
in  nearly  all  cookery  books,  carefully  keeping  this  definition  of  cook- 
ing in  mind.  Of  what  do  these  instructions  consist?  Mainly  in  direc- 
tions how  to  overcome  or  to  avoid  the  faults  of  the  apparatus  in  or 
upon  which  this  fine  process  of  chemical  conversion  is  to  be  accom- 
plished. u  Put  this  into  a  quick  oven ; "  "  put  that  into  a  slow  oven ;  " 
"boil  this  on  the  front  of  the  stove  directly  over  the  fire;"  "  simmer 
that  011  the  back  of  the  stove  away  from  the  fire;  "  "  keep  stirring  this 
as  long  as  it  is  upon  the  stove; "  "  etc.,  etc."  Yet  in  how  very  few  if 


22 

any  of  the  cookery  books  is  there  any  exact  definition  of  the  terms 
quick  oven  and  slow  oven,  or  any  reason  given  why  one  thing  should  be 
boiled  and  why  another  should  not. 

EXAMPLES   OF   PROPER  DIRECTIONS   FOR   COOKING. 

One  or  two  examples  may  be  given  as  illustrations. 

Take,  for  instance,  the  coffee  berry.  If  the  coffee  berry  is  ground 
in  its  natural  condition  and  made  into  an  infusion,  that  liquid  is  not 
fit  to  drink.  If  the  coffee  berry  is  subjected  to  a  heat  high  enough  to 
burn  it,  or  to  carbonize  it  in  excess,  the  infusion  is  unpalatable  and 
unfit  to  drink.  The  coffee  berry  must  be  subjected  to  a  regulated, 
even,  and  moderate  degree  of  heat  for  a  measured  time  in  order  to 
accomplish  the  chemical  conversion  which  changes  the  crude  material 
into  the  form  from  which  we  get  the  essential  properties  of  coffee. 
Why  is  it  necessary  to  stir  the  berries  when  an  attempt  is  made  to 
brown  or  roast  the  coffee  berries  in  the  domestic  kitchen?  Is  it  not 
simply  to  overcome  the  unsuitable  quality  of  the  stove? 

Another  example  may  be  found  in  the  egg.  If  an  egg  is  boiled — 
that  is  to  say,  if  it  is  subjected  to  a  heat  of  212°  F.  or  over  for  ten 
minutes — the  yolk  will 'become  mealy,  but  the  albumen,  or  white  of 
the  egg,  becomes  hard,  horny,  and  indigestible.  If  the  egg  is  sub- 
jected to  the  high  boiling  heat  for  only  three  minutes,  the  white  remains 
soft,  but  the  heat  will  not  penetrate  the  yolk  to  any  considerable 
extent.  In  that  condition  the  so-called  soft-boiled  egg  is  palatable, 
nutritious,  and  wholesome,  but  the  yolk  is  substantially  uncooked. 
Subject  the  egg  to  a  moderate  degree  of  heat,  anywhere  from  180°  to 
190°  F.  for  ten  minutes,  or  even  at  a  less  temperature  for  a  longer 
time,  and  then  the  whole  substance  of  the  egg  is  cooked  to  a  soft  and 
jelly-like  condition,  which  is  digestible,  nutritious,  and  appetizing. 
J  Again,  given  a  tough  piece  of  meat,  to  boil  it  is  to  spoil  it.  It  may 
be  "boiled  to  rags,'7  according  to  the  common  expression,  the  juices 
may  be  extracted  and  the  meat  may  appear  to  be  tender,  but  it  is  in 
fact  stringy ;  each  fiber  is  horny  and  separately  so  tough  that  it  is  unfit 
to  eat.  Subject  the  same  tough  muscle  to  a  heat  of  about  190°  F.  for 
a  long  period  of  time,  either  in  water  or  in  a  closed  vessel  in  its  own 
juices,  subjected  to  heat  outside,  then,  while  the  flavor  and  juices  are 
all  retained,  the  muscle  is  disintegrated,  and  the  whole  becomes  as 
tender  as  the  teuderest  part  of  the  animal.  The  beef's  heart,  which  is 
the  toughest  muscle,  when  dealt  with  in  this  way,  may  be  made  as 
tender  as  the  tenderloin.  A  tough  old  fowl  may  be  converted  into  a 
tender  roasted  chicken,  somewhat  higher  in  flavor  than  a  true  chicken. 

If  these  exceptions  to  common  practice  are  sustained,  it  follows  of 
necessity  that  a  true  science  of  cooking  can  not  be  established  without 
very  great  and  revolutionary  changes.  Moreover,  it  becomes  manifest 
that  if  the  apparatus  in  use  is  bad,  the  art  of  cooking  must  remain 
crude,  empirical,  and  commonly  bad. 


23 

THE  REAL  PROBLEM  OF  SECURING  GOOD  COOKS. 

Another  objection  may  be  taken  to  the  method  in  which  the  subject 
of  cooking  has  been  dealt  with  in  magazine  articles  and  other  treatises 
and  the  various  projects  for  teaching  cooking  as  a  business.  The  pro- 
portion of  the  people  of  any  country  who  can  afford  to  hire  cooks  to 
prepare  their  food  is  very  small.  The  number  of  cooks  required  to 
meet  this  small  demand  may  be  insufficient,  yet  the  demand  itself  is 
very  limited.  If  that  specific  demand  were  fully  met  by  any  methods  yet 
proposed  the  greater  problem  would  still  remain  wholly  unsolved.  The 
greater  problem  consists  in  so  developing  both  the  science  of  nutrition 
and  the  science  of  cooking  as  to  enable  the  great  mass  of  the  people,  for 
whom  one  in  each  family  must  prepare  and  cook  the  food  of  the  rest,  to 
do  that  work  in  a  simple,  effective,  economical,  and  nutritious  manner. 
How  shall  every  boy  be  taught  to  become  his  own  cook;  every  girl  also 
who  can  spare  the  time  from  what  are  apparently  esteemed  more  import- 
ant accomplishments'?  Is  not  that  the  true  question  J  To  that  end  the 
writer  has  devoted  the  leisure  hours  of  a  very  active  business  life  for 
many  years.  His  attention  was  first  called  to  the  subject  through  his 
supervision  of  large  numbers  of  working  people,  who  were  occupied  in 
factories  which  were  under  his  business  charge.  He  claims  no  scientific 
knowledge;  his  function  has  simply  been  to  search  the  records  of  nutri- 
tion which  exist  in  the  works  of  many  physiologists,  chemists,  econo- 
mists, physicians,  and  others  who  have  dealt  with  this  problem.  His 
effort  has  been  to  sort  out  the  simple  elements  which  came  within  the 
comprehension  of  the  uninstructed  mind  and  with  the  aid  of  his  scientific 
friends  to  present  them  in  a  practical  way.  (Science  of  Nutrition — 
Edward  Atkinson.  Damrell  &  Upham,  Boston,  Mass.,  U.  S.  A.)  The 
solution  of  the  problem  was  not  far  to  seek,  although  it  took  a  very  long 
time,  a  great  deal  of  misdirected  energy,  and  much  misspent  money 
before  it  could  be  attained. 

THE   WAY  TO   IMPROVE   COOKING. 

The  secret  lies  in  this  fact.  What  we  call  heat  ca*n  be  boxed  up.  I 
shall  not  attempt  to  use  scientific  terms  in  stating  what  I  mean.  A  box 
may  be  made  of  incombustible  material,  substantially  tight  at  the 
joints,  with  a  hole  in  the  bottom  a  very  little  larger  than  the  top  of  the 
chimney  of  the  lamp  or  gas-burner.  The  kerosene  oil  lamp  is  most 
effective,  very  easily  managed,  and  the  heat  from  kerosene  oil  costs  less 
than  gas  in  this  country.  I  therefore  use  oil.  If  the  top  of  the  chim- 
ney of  the  lighted  lamp  be  placed  just  under  and  as  close  as  may  be  to 
this  hole,  so  that  the  draft  through  the  lamp  chimney  is  not  impaired, 
the  heat  may  then  be  accumulated  within  the  box  in  proportion  to  the 
amount  of  oil  consumed  by  a  given  wick,  in  ratio  to  the  size  and  non- 
heat-conducting  properties  of  the  box.  The  products  of  combustion 
force  their  way  out  at  the  side  of  the  lamp  chimney  through  a  surpris- 


24 

ingly  small  space.  If  the  lamp  is  properly  trimmed  the  combustion  is 
complete  and  there  will  be  no  smoke.  When  the  heat  has  thus  been 
boxed  up  it  can  be  converted  into  work.  If  a  vent  is  opened  at  the 
top  the  heat  escapes  rapidly  and  its  work  is  lessened.  Heat  must  be 
accumulated  without  loss  by  unnecessary  rapidity  in  circulation.  If  a 
current  is  imparted  to  it  by  a  vent  the  motion  becomes  tangential  or 
glancing  on  the  outside  of  the  inner  oven,  and  then  it  is  not  converted 
into  work. 

The  ordinary  temperatures  for  cooking  range  from  180°  F.  in  the  sim- 
mering processes  up  to  320°  F.  to  350°  F.  in  baking  and  in  roasting. 
A  considerable  variation  in  the  degree  of  heat  may  be  compensated 
for  by  longer  time.  The  degree  of  heat  to  be  avoided  is  that  which 
distils  the  animal  fats  or  the  juices  of  the  meat  and  vegetables.  A 
very  little  practice  enables  any  person  of  common  ability  to  apply  the 
right  degree  of  heat  in  this  apparatus  to  every  purpose,  simmering, 
stewing,  baking,  roasting,  or  sauteing  which  is  commonly  called  frying. 
The  heat  may  be  maintained  at  a  very  close  measure  for  one  hour,  for 
twenty-four  hours,  or  for  any  length  of  time. 

Having  been  called  upon  to  make  apparatus  for  sterilizing  the  sur- 
gical instruments  in  an  eye  and  ear  infirmary,  I  had  no  difficulty  in  so 
constructing  the  inner  oven  with  a  double  bottom  as  to  overcome  the 
difference  in  temperature  between  the  top  and  the  bottom,  and  I  have 
furnished  several  occulists  with  sterilizing  apj>aratus  in  which  they 
had  no  difficulty  in  maintaining  a  temperature  ot  300°  F.  continuously 
with  but  very  slight  variation. 

RULES  OF  THE  ART  OF   COOKING. 

J  The  whole  art  of  cooking  may  be  reduced  to  two  simple  rules : 

Rule  No.  1. — Put  some  heat  in  a  box  and  maintain  it  at  an  even  tem- 
perature with  a  lamp  or  gas-burner  as  long  as  you  wish  to  apply  it. 

Rule  No.  2. — Mix  one  part  of  food  material  with  one  part  of  gumption 
in  a  cooking  vessel;  put  this  combination  into  the  box  where  the  heat 
is ;  the  lamp  or  gas-burner  will  do  the  rest. 

When  these  two  rules  are  fully  comprehended,  any  boy  or  girl  who 
possesses  the  one  element  of  gumption  and  who  has  learned  to  read  can, 
in  my  judgment,  be  taught  the  art  of  bread-making,  so  that  it  will  never 
be  lost,  in  one  written  or  printed  lesson.  The  personal  supervision  of 
the  teacher  over  the  work  is  not  called  for. 

In  point  of  fact,  the  waste  of  food  may  be  stopped.  The  waste  of  fuel 
may  be  stopped.  The  science  of  nutrition  may  be  taught  from  a  school 
book.  The  art  of  plain  cooking  and  bread-making  can  be  learned  in  a 
day.  But  in  order  that  all  this  may  be  accomplished  suitable  apparatus 
and  suitable  fuel  must  displace  the  unfit  cooking  apparatus  and  the 
coal  that  are  now  commonly  used. 

Before  any  common  conclusion  can  be  reached  in  regard  to  these 
matters  two  definitions  must  be  established  in  order  that  the  whole 


25 

process  of  reasoning  may  not  be  at  cross  purposes.    The  subjects  with  . 
which  we  are  called  upon  to  deal  are  meat,  fish,  cereals,  and  vegetables.  / 
These  are  food  materials,  but  are  not  food  until  cooked.    They  may  I 
be  seasoned  and  flavored,  but  the  finest  art  of  cookiDg  is  to  develop 
the  special  flavor  of  each  kind  of  food. 

IN  WHAT  DOES  THE  ART   uF   COOKING  CONSIST? 

Before  dealing  with  the  science  we  may  define  the  art  of  cooking  as*/ 
consisting  m  applying  heat  to  each  of  these  subjects  in  such  a  way  as 
(1)  to  render  it  digestible,  so  that  its  nutrient  properties  may  be  assimi- 
lated in  true  proportion  in  the  human  system  5  (2)  to  render  it  appetiz- 
ing by  the  development  of  its  own  specific  flavor ;  (3)  to  combine  dif- 
ferent kinds  of  food  material  in  such  a  way  that  each  will  render  the 
other  palatable;  (4)  to  remove  certain  portions  which  may  not  be  pala- 
table or  digestible  after  the  first  application  of  heat,  either  as  waste, 
like  bone,  as  excess,  like  much  of  the  fat  that  may  be  used  for  other 
purposes,  or  as  woody  fiber  in  many  vegetables;  (5)  to  add  to  the  essen- 
tial elements  salt  in  its  due  proportion  in  almost  every  process,  and 
sugar  in  some  combinations,  and  other  condiments,  spices,  or  flavorings 
in  such  a  way  as  to  develop  rather  than  to  disguise  the  true  flavor  of 
the  principal  food  material  entering  into  each  dish. 

The  science  of  cooking  has  already  been  defined.    It  is  the  applica-v 
tion  of  heat  at  the  right  temperature  for  the  right  length  of  time  to  each 
element  of  food  or  to  each  combination. 

The  art  of  preparing  or  combining  food  material  can  be  stated  in 
specific  terms  or  rules,  and  can  be  learned  from  printed  forms,  subject 
to  very  slight  variation.  In  order  to  apply  these  rules,  instruments  of 
precision  must  be  used  to  which  any  child  can  be  habituated.  The 
weights  and  measures  are  taught  in  the  arithmetics.  Their  application 
in  practice  in  pounds,  ounces,  quarts,  etc.,  is  within  the  power  of  any 
person  of  common  intelligence.  Any  one  of  the  average  children  in 
our  public  or  common  grammar  schools,  in  some  of  which  the  art  of 
cooking  is  now  taught,  can  be  supplied  with  written  or  printed  instruc- 
tions to  go  to  certain  shops  and  to  buy  given  quantities  of  meat,  fish, 
grain,  vegetables,  eggs,  salt,  etc.  The  exact  quantities  of  each  kind  of 
food  necessary  to  the  complete  nutrition  of  any  given  number  of  per- 
sons can  then  be  weighed  out  by  them  and  measured  in  due  proportion, 
so  that  the  combination  shall  give  the  approximate  units  of  nitrogen, 
starch,  and  fat,  and  the  approximate  number  of  calories  or  mechanical 
units  of  heat  which  are  necessary  to  sustain  a  man  who  is  doing  work 
corresponding  to  that  of  a  German  soldier  in  active  service,  or  to  that 
of  a  student  or  professional  man  of  average  powers  of  digestion.  All 
these  directions  can  be  put  into  printed  terms,  and  up  to  that  point 
everything  is  simple.  The  scales  and  measures  are  simple.  The  divi- 
sions and  combination  of  the  food  material  are  simple.  Every  part  of 


26 

the  work  up  to  this  point  can  be  done  by  rule  by  any  one  who  can  read 
and  who  is  willing  to  take  pains. 

All  these  materials  could  also  be  bought  and  placed  upon  the  kitchen 
table  in  the  household  of  every  child,  where  all  the  necessary  utensils 
may  also  be  kept  upon  the  shelves  of  the  kitchen.  Up  to  that  point 
every  branch  of  physical  science  has  been  applied — to  the  production 
of  the  material,  to  its  transportation  and  distribution,  to  the  manufac- 
ture of  the  scales,  weights,  and  measures,  and  to  making  the  utensils 
that  are  to  be  used  before  the  food  material  is  cooked.  Every  branch 
of  science  has  been  applied  to  all  these  preceding  processes.  At  this 
point  science  stops. 

THE  PRESENT  ABSURD  WAY  OF  TEACHING  COOKING. 

The  teacher  who  comprehends  the  case  must  now  begin  a  lecture 
upon  cooking  substantially  in  this  way: 

In  order  that  these  materials  may  become  nutritious  food  you  have  brought  them 
together,  divided  them,  prepared  them,  and  combined  them  without  any  aid  from 
me,  only  following  the  rules  which  are  given  in  the  primers  that  I  have  put  into 
your  hands.  This  food  is  now  to  be  cooked. 

Cooking  consists  in  applying  a  regulated  degree  of  heat  at  the  right  temperature 
for  the  right  length  of  time.  If  the  heat  is  too  great  some  of  these  materials  will  be 
spoiled.  If  it  is  not  high  enough  others  will  not  be  cooked.  If  some  are  cooked  too 
\  long  they  will  be  spoiled.  If  some  are  not  cooked  long  enough  they  will  not  be  fit 
to  eat.  If  they  are  put  in  the  wrong  place  on  the  stove  they  will  be  burned.  If 
they  are  not  looked  after  they  will  be  dried  up,  and  if  they  are  not  cared  for  during 
the  whole  process  some  of  them  will  be  heavy,  or  too  moist,  or  overcooked,  or  raw. 

The  only  stove  that  I  can  teach  you  to  use  is  this  one  made  of  iron.  It  is  to  be 
heated  with  coal.  You  must  first  learn  how  to  make  the  fire.  It  is  very  true  that 
iron  is  not  fit  to  be  used  in  making  a  stove  and  coal  is  not  fit  to  be  burned  in  cook- 
ing. We  might  furnish  you  with  gas  stoves  and  we  might  make  use  of  gas  in  this 
schoolhouse;  but  in  many  or  most  of  your  houses  you  are  under  the  necessity  of 
using  coal,  therefore  you  must  be  taught  to  burn  coal.  You  need  an  even  heat  and 
you  ought  to  be  able  to  control  it  with  certainty ;  but  you  can  not  always  get  a  per- 
fectly even  heat  from  coal  even  by  the  closest  watching,  and  you  can  not,  as  a  rule, 
\  control  it  properly  in  any  iron  stove. 

You  must  learn  to  measure  the  heat  of  the  oven  by  putting  your  hand  in  now  and 
then.  That  is  not  a  true  test,  but  it  is  the  best  that  we  can  offer  you.  You  must 
watch  everything  that  is  put  on  top  of  the  stove  all  the  time,  even  though  the  heat 
V  cooks  you  more  than  it  cooks  the  food.  You  must  stir  these  compounds  with  a 
spoon  to  prevent  them  from  being  burned.  You  must  move  some  from  the  front  to 
the  back ;  you  must  proceed  with  patience  and  keep  your  temper.  After  a  practice 
of  two  or  three  years  perhaps  one  in  five  of  you  may  succeed  in  not  spoiling  more 
than  half  the  food  material  that  you  work  upon  when  you  take  charge  of  the  kitchen. 
Perhaps  one  in  ten  may  become  a  tolerably  good  cook.  About  one  in  a  hundred  may 
prove  an  adept. 

My  object  is  to  do  away  with  this  confusion  and  uncertainty.  There 
is  a  close  analogy  between  the  art  of  cooking  and  the  art  of  dyeing. 
One  is  the  development  of  appetizing  flavor  by  chemical  conversion 
through  the  application  of  heat ;  the  other  is  the  development  of  attract- 
ive color  by  chemical  conversion  through  the  application  of  heat. 


27 

All  the  materials  used  in  dyeing  can  be  assembled;  all  the  appliances 
can  be  set  out  and  all  the  rules  for  combining  the  dyestuffs  can  be 
printed;  but  when  heat  is  to  be  applied  to  their  chemical  conversion, 
what  skillful  dyer  would  rest  satisfied  with  appliances  corresponding 
to  the  common  cooking  stoves  or  ranges?  Yet  the  science  of  cooking 
is  to  as  great  an  extent  a  fine  process  of  chemical  conversion  as  is  the 
science  of  dyeing.  It  is  admitted  that  there  are  some  processes  in  the 
preparation  of  dyeing  compounds  that  still  require  the  trained  hand 
and  eye  of  the  expert.  There  are  also  some  processes  of  cooking  of 
the  same  kind,  notably  broiling  and  frying  by  immersion.  These  are, 
however,  luxurious  processes  of  cooking,  not  essential  to  nutrition,  and 
if  they  are  badly  practiced  they  are  quite  the  reverse. 

THE   ORIGIN  OF  THE   ATKINSON  THEORY  OF  COOKING. 

The  essential  processes  of  baking,  roastin glimmering,  stewing,  boil- 
ing, and  sauteing  can  be  reduced  to  rules.  Heat  can  be  applied  with- 
out waste  in  sufficiently  exact  measure  either  from  gas  or  oil.  Appa- 
ratus has  been  made  and  is  in  use  in  which  this  heat  can  be  applied 
without  constant  attention.  Nothing  need  be  burned,  dried  up,  or 
wasted.  All  natural  flavors  can  be  developed  and  retained.  All  offen- 
sive odors  can  be  prevented.  Finally,  by  taking  more  time  in  the 
process  almost  the  whole  time  of  the  cook  maybe  saved;  because,  when 
the  food  is  placed  in  a  suitable  cooking  apparatus,  the  lamp  or  gas- 
burner  will  do  all  the  rest  of  the  work. 

Benjamin  Thompson,  of  Massachusetts,  afterwards  Count  Eumford, 
of  Bavaria,  laid  the  foundation  for  this  development  of  the  science  of 
cooking  more  than  a  hundred  years  ago.  He  failed  only  because  he  had 
not  the  control  either  of  kerosene  oil  or  gas,  or  of  incombustible  non- 
heat-conducting  substances  which  can  be  used  as  a  substitute  for  iron 
or  brick  in  making  an  oven.  He  could  not  encase  or  box  up  his  heat 
except  in  brick,  and  therefore  he  could  not  regulate  it  by  as  simple 
appliances  as  we  have  to-day. 

The  true  foundation  for  a  science  of  cooking  has  been  laid  in  what  is 
known  as  the  Norwegian  cooking  box,  from  which  the  writer  derived 
his  own  theory.  When  boiling  water  is  placed  in  a  wooden  box  lined 
with  felt  and  then  wTith  metal,  into  which  a  water-tight  receptacle  con- 
taining food  is  placed  and  then  covered  up,  the  food  is  cooked  in  the 
most  complete  manner  after  a  considerable  lapse  of  time.  All  that  the 
writer  has  done  is  to  develop  the  Norwegian  cooking  box  by  adding 
appliances  to  it  by  which  the  heat  encased  in  the  box  can  be  maintained 
for  any  length  of  time  at  any  given  temperature. 

SIMPLE   TESTS   OF   THE  NORWEGIAN  METHOD   OF   COOKING. 

A  very  rough-and-ready  test  of  this  method  may  be  made  at  a  small 
expense.  A  small  table  may  be  constructed,  with  the  top  of  sheet  iron 
or  tin;  in  the  center  should  be  made  a  hole  2J  inches  in  diameter; 


28 

underneath,  at  a  convenient  distance  from  the  floor,  should  be  a  plat- 
form to  hold  a  kerosene  oil  lamp  with  a  central  duct.  The  round- wick 
lamp,  which  consumes  1  quart  of  oil  in  eight  hours,  is  best  adapted  to 
the  purpose.  When  such  a  lamp  is  applied  to  the  regularly  constructed 
Aladdin  oven  it  will  cook  three  charges  of  bread  and  two  of  meat  or 
fish  and  vegetables — in  the  aggregate  40  to  45  pounds — in  eight  hours, 
with  the  expenditure  of  1  quart  of  oil. 

Upon  this  table  reverse  a  large  crock  of  thick  earthenware  over  the 
hole.  Place  the  lighted  lamp  under  the  hole  so  that  the  top  of  the 
chimney  may  be  almost  in  it.  This  crock  will  not  save  the  heat  as  it 
should,  but  yet  beneath  this  single  crock  different  varieties  of  food  may 
be  placed  in  closed  vessels,  either  of  metal  or  of  crockery  ware,  and  the 
food  will  be  nutritiously  cooked  in  a  certain  lapse  of  time.  A  tile  or 
earthen  plate  on  supports  about  half  an  inch  high  will  keep  the  heat 
from  direct  contact  with«the  cooking  vessels.  No  rule  can  be  laid  down 
for  this  service,  and  the  heat  will  not  be  as  uniform  at  the  top  and  the 
bottom  of  the  crock  as  it  is  in  the  inner  food  receptacle  of  the  Aladdin 
oven,  around  which  the  heat  circulates  011  all  sides.  If  a  second  larger 
crock  is  put  outside,  the  heat  will  be  more  effective.  Afelt"cosey" 
put  over  it  will  make  it  a  very  good  approach  to  the  cooking  box. 

Another  experiment  may  be  tried  at  the  risk  of  carbonizing  the 
material.  It  should  therefore  be  conducted  only  on  a  brick  hearth  or 
stone  floor,  where  no  harm  will  be  done  if  the  wood  suggested  for  use 
is  set  on  fire. 

Make  a  wooden  box,  without  any  top,  about  18  inches  long,  14  inches 
high,  and  12  inches  wide.  Treat  it,  if  you  can,  on  the  inside  with  plas- 
tering, or  mortar,  or  some  other  fire  retardent.  Under  this  box,  reversed, 
place  a  sheet  iron  oven  on  legs  about  an  inch  high.  That  is  the  prin- 
ciple of  the  Aladdin  oven,  but  it  is  not  safe  for  common  use.  It  may 
be  applied  to  experimental  purposes  and  to  the  test  of  the  methods 
suggested  by  myself.  The  Aladdin  oven  is  made  of  an  outer  case  of 
incombustible,  nonheat-conducting,  and  nonmetallic  material,  within 
which  the  sheet-iron  oven  or  cooking  receptacle  is  safely  placed. 

ADVANTAGES  OF   THE  NEW  METHOD   OF   COOKING. 

When  proper  apparatus  is  used,  the  cereals,  meat  and  fish  stews, 
pork  and  beans,  corned  beef  and  cabbage,  pease  porridge,  brown 
bread  made  of  maize  meal,  and  many  other  kinds  of  food  can  be  put 
into  the  oven  at  night,  the  lamp  being  then  lighted.  In  the  morning 
the  cooked  food  is  taken  out,  ready  for  consumption,  without  waste. 
Many  kinds  of  most  appetizing  combinations  can  be  placed  in  the  oven 
by  a  workingman  or  a  working  woman  after  the  breakfast  is  cleared, 
before  leaving  the  house  to  go  to  work.  Eeturning  at  midday  the 
wholesome  dinner  is  found  ready  to  be  eaten.  The  bread  may  then  be 
mixed  in  a  few  minutes,  with  a  mechanical  bread-kneader,  and  placed 
in  the  bread-raiser,  so  that  at  a  certain  hour  it  will  be  ready  for  the 


29 

oven.     It  can  tlien  be  baked  in  the  evening,  by  the  light  of  the  house- 
hold lamp  or  gas-burner. 

I  arn  aware  that  in  giving  these  details  and  in  suggesting  these  exper- 
iments I  may  be  enabling  others  to  perfect  my  own  somewhat  costly 
devices.  Yet,  I  think,  no  one  can  excel  the  oven  which  is  sold  under  my 
trade-mark  "Aladdin,"  and  I  may  perhaps  continue  to  ameliorate  the 
condition  of  the  rich  by  serving  them  with  apparatus  in  which,  accord- 
ing to  the  testimony  of  one  lady,  vegetables  were  cooked  in  such  a  way 
that,  although  she  had  been  eating  them  all  her  life,  she  now  tasted 
them  for  the  first  time,  and  from  which  the  choicest  game  has  been 
served  in  the  highest  perfection.  It  has  also  been  my  practice  for  some 
time  to  give,  to  parties  of  eight,  dinners  cooked  in  an  ovenplacedbehind 
my  own  chair  in  the  dining  room,  in  the  china  dishes  in  which  the  food 
is  served.  In  this  way  experiments  have  been  tried,  without  a  single 
failure,  upon  persons  who  pride  themselves  on  the  refinement  of  their 
tastes.  On  one  occasion  my  party  numbered  12,  to  whom  an  eight- 
course  dinner  in  the  regular  conventional  order  was  served  at  an  aver- 
age cost  of  2  cents  per  guest  for  each  course — the  total  cost  of  the  meat, 
fish,  and  other  materials  amounting  to  less  than  $2  for  12  persons. 

THE   NEW  ENGLAND    "CLAM  BAKE." 

Many  persons  are  familiar  with  the  appetizing  results  of  cooking  in 
the  forest  or  by  the  seaside,  over  hot  stones  on  which  the  food  is  placed 
and  then  covered  with  turf  or  seaweed.  The  New  England  clambake 
would  give  an  experience  to  many  persons  that  they  would  never  for- 
get. Platforms  are  made  of  flat  stones  gathered  by  the  seaside,  which 
are  heated  with  wood  fires.  The  ashes  are  then  swept  away  and  a 
layer  of  wet  seaweed  or  rockweed  put  on $  on  this  a  layer  of  clams; 
then  another  layer  of  seaweed  ;  then  sweet  corn  in  the  milk ;  then  more 
seaweed ;  then  some  fish  and  some  lobsters ;  more  seaweed ;  more  clams ; 
finally,  in  tin  pans,  Indian  puddings,  made  of  maize  meal  and  molasses; 
then  a  final  covering  of  seaweed,  and  the  whole  covered  over  with  sail- 
cloth. The  heated  stones  do  the  work  of  cooking.  Clambakes  are  pre- 
pared for  small  parties,  or  for  hundreds,  or  for  thousands  of  people. 

This  was  the  method  in  which  the  Indian  tribes  of  this  country 
cooked  clams  and  fish  for  vast  numbers.  Along  the  coast  from  Maine 
to  Florida  great  piles  of  clam  shells  are  found  many  feet  in  height, 
sometimes  hundreds  of  feet  in  length,  in  which  are  intermingled  relics 
of  pottery,  stone  implements,  and  arrowheads,  marking  the  places 
where  the  Indian  clambakes  were  established.  The  name  of  one  point 
in  Massachusetts — Squantum — is  said  to  mean  the  place  for  a  clam- 
bake. 

I  am  not  aware  how  many  persons  there  may  be  whose  memory 
recalls  the  common  use  of  the  brick  oven,  heated  with  wood,  in  which 
the  historic  feasts  of  Thanksgiving  as  well  as  most  of  the  daily  bread 
were  prepared  in  New  England.  The  secret  of  that  long-remembered 


30 

and  most  excellent  process  of  cooking  was  the  moderate  and  long-con- 
tinued heat  radiating  from  the  solid  brick  arches  and  floor.  I  believe 
they  are  still  in  occasional  use  in  some  of  the  old  mansions  of  England. 

THE  PRINCIPLE  OF  THE  ALADDIN  OVEN. 

The  Aladdin  oven  has  been  patented,  but  the  writer  has  published 
the  methods  and  has  dedicated  them  to  public  use  without  fee  or  roy- 
alty. It  would  not  be  suitable,  except  for  this  declaration,  to  advertise 
this  apparatus  in  an  article  of  this  kind,  the  object  of  which  is  simply 
to  state  the  true  principle  of  cooking.  This  principle  is  that  heat  may 
be  conveyed  to  the  inside  of  a  box,  which  box  may  be  made  of  incom- 
bustible but  nonheat-conducting  material.  It  can  there  be  maintained 
by  measure  either  of  the  quantity  of  oil  consumed  per  hour  by  a  given 
lamp  wick  or  by  the  number  of  feet  discharged  through  a  Bun  sen  gas- 
burner.  An  inner  oven  made  of  sheet  metal,  with  shelves  and  in 
other  ways  corresponding  to  the  common  oven,  may  be  placed  in  this 
outer  box,  without  any  direct  communication  with  or  opening  to  the 
source  of  heat  and  without  any  ventilator  or  other  escape  for  gases 
than  the  pressure  of  the  humid  atmosphere  generated  in  the  processes 
exerts  through  the  cracks  of  the  door. 

When  the  heat  is  kept  below  the  distillingpoint  of  animal  fats  or  of  the 
juices  of  the  vegetables,  which  may  be  put  substantially  at  between  300° 
and  350°  F.,  no  offensive  odors  are  generated  and  no  injury  done  to  the 
material.  Meats,  fish,  cauliflower,  potatoes,  onions,  and  custard  or 
other  puddings  may  be  cooked  in  the  same  oven  at  the  same  time  with- 
out either  imparting  any  flavor  to  the  other  or  losing  any  of  its  own 
special  flavor.  Water  only  will  be  evaporated,  and  that  only  in  suffi- 
cient measure  to  keep  the  condition  of  the  oven  favorable  to  the  best 
results.  If  it  is  thought  necessary  that  the  roast  should  be  aestheti- 
cally brown,  it  is  better  to  roast  the  meat  and  bake  the  fish  in  a  sepa- 
rate oven,  basting,  before  the  food  is  put  into  the  oven,  with  butter  and 
bread  crumbs  that  turn  to  a  brown  color  at  a  lower  degree  of  tempera- 
ture than  the  animal  fats,  opening  the  vent  to  secure  a  dry  heat  a  little 
while  before  serving. 

The  only  failure  of  the  writer  in  this  undertaking  has  been  that  as 
yet  he  has  been  unable  to  assemble  the  materials  and  have  the  ovens 
made  at  as  low  a  cost  as  he  had  hoped  to  be  able  to  attain,  with  a  mar- 
gin of  profit  sufficient  to  cover  the  maker's  profit  and  pay  for  the  dis- 
tribution. The  Standard  oven,  with  its  complete  equipment  of  metallic 
table,  lamp,  and  certain  cooking  vessels,  can  not  be  sold  at  less  than 
$30,  boxed  and  ready  for  shipment.  This  statement  is  made  because 
many  readers  will  desire  to  know  the  cost  of  the  apparatus.  The  dis- 
appointment of  the  writer  has  been  that  after  five  years  of  experiment 
and  practice,  attracting  wide  attention,  the  demand  has  only  developed 
in  a  very  limited  way  by  the  sale  of  a  few  hundreds  rather  than 
thousands  of  ovens. 


At  the  summer  seaside  dwelling  oFtlie  -Writer  no'ctoai'  las  -been  in 
use  for  cooking  for  more  than  four  years,  and  the  kitchen,  which  is  open 
on  one  side  to  the  sea  and  on  the  other  to  the  woods,  is  about  the  cool- 
est room  in  the  house. 

There  are  two  great  obstructions  to  be  overcome  before  the  revolution 
in  the  domestic  kitchen  will  be  accomplished,  to  wit,  the  inertia  of 
woman  and  the  incredulity  of  mankind. 

SOME   OF   THE   BENEFITS   ALREADY   OBTAINED. 

In  the  meantime  the  writer  has  been  enabled  to  teach  a  good  many 
families  of  poor  people  how  to  reduce  the  prime  cost  of  their  food  from 
one-half  their  income  to  one-third  or  one-quarter,  with  much  better 
nutrition  and  with  a  great  saving  in  comfort,  time,  and  labor. 

Dealing  with  this  matter  as  a  student  and  to  some  extent  as  a  writer 
upon  economic  science,  the  writer  has  long  been  of  the  conviction  that 
the  unit  of  the  family  is  the  one  to  be  maintained,  and  that  he  who 
aids  in  bringing  within  the  reach  of  each  separate  family  the  economy 
which  has  yet  been  attained  only  in  feeding  great  numbers  of  people 
in  hotels  or  asylums  will  do  more  to  establish  modern  society  on  a  solid 
foundation  than  by  working  in  any  other  direction.  Unless  the  testi- 
mony of  many  hundred  witnesses  is  to  be  absolutely  and  wholly  dis- 
credited, that  work  is  substantially  accomplished. 

It  now  remains  to  reduce  the  cost  of  the  apparatus  and  to  bring  it 
into  use  at  a  commercial  profit  by  ordinary  methods.  Yet  then  it  will 
still  be  necessary  to  overcome  the  depraved  appetite  of  vast  numbers  of 
people,  especially  in  this  country,  who  are  averse  to  or  are  x>rejudiced 
against  the  right  methods  of  bread-making  and  preparing  food,  and 
who  are  also  utterly  ignorant  of  the  resources  which  lie  right  at  their 
hands  for  supplying  themselves  in  the  most  wholesome  way  at  half  the 
cost  of  their  present  methods. 

It  is  now  urged  that  food  laboratories  should  be  established  in  con- 
nection with  tie  agricultural  experiment  stations  now  existing  in  the 
larger  number  of  the  States  of  the  Union.  It  is  admittedly  absurd  to 
devote  energy,  time,  and  money  to  the  nutrition  of  the  soil,  the  plant, 
and  the  beast,  to  the  end  that  the  most  abundant  product  of  every  kind 
may  be  assured  at  the  lowest  measure  of  cost,  and  then  to  leave  this 
abundance  of  the  best  food  to  be  converted  into  bad  feeding  for  lack  of 
attention  to  the  nutrition  of  man.  In  a  few  years  the  door  of  the 
domestic  kitchen  may  be  opened  to  science  through  the  work  of  the 
food  laboratories  and  the  experimental  cooking  stations  now  contem- 
plated. 


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DUE  AS  STAMPED  BELOW 

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o.  r-  I-L    rv    rt     inrijl 

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AUTO  DISC  C!P{    ttr  ui^a 

MAR  1  1  iggg 

KAY  U  2001 

FORM  NO   DD  6                                UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA,  BERKELEY 
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